| Table of Contents |
| | Preface | vii |
| | Acknowledgements | viii |
| | Abbreviations | xi |
| 1. | Introduction | 1 |
| | 1.1 | Global trends | 1 |
| | 1.2 | Environment and trade linkages | 2 |
| | 1.3 | Differing perspectives | 3 |
| 2. | International environmental management | 7 |
| | 2.1 | Origins | 7 |
| | 2.2 | Principles | 8 |
| | 2.3 | National environmental management | 10 |
| | 2.4 | Multilateral environmental agreements | 11 |
| | | 2.4.1 | Structure | 11 |
| | | 2.4.2 | The principal MEAs | 13 |
| | | 2.4.3 | Implementation and dispute settlement | 15 |
| | | 2.4.4 | Trade measures in MEAs | 16 |
| 3. | The basics of the WTO | 21 |
| | 3.1 | Structure of the World Trade Organization | 21 |
| | | 3.1.1 | The Committee on Trade and Environment | 24 |
| | 3.2 | Functions of the WTO | 26 |
| | 3.3 | The core principles | 26 |
| | 3.4 | The key agreements, with a special consideration of those related to the environment | 27 |
| | | 3.4.1 | The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, 1994 | 27 |
| | | 3.4.2 | The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade | 31 |
| | | 3.4.3 | The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures | 31 |
| | 3.5 | Other agreements | 32 |
| | 3.6 | Regional trade agreements | 32 |
| | 3.7 | Dispute settlement | 32 |
| 4. | Physical and economic linkages | 35 |
| | 4.1 | Product effects | 35 |
| | 4.2 | Scale effects | 36 |
| | 4.3 | Structural effects | 39 |
| 5. | Legal and policy linkages | 41 |
| | 5.1 | Environmental standards and process and production methods | 41 |
| | 5.2 | Environmental standards and competitiveness | 44 |
| | 5.3 | Environmental standards, science and precaution | 45 |
| | 5.4 | Ecolabelling and environmental management system certification programs | 46 |
| | | 5.4.1 | Ecolabels | 47 |
| | | 5.4.2 | Environmental management system certification | 47 |
| | | 5.4.3 | Ecolabels, EMS certification and international trade | 48 |
| | 5.5 | Subsidies | 49 |
| | 5.6 | Agriculture | 51 |
| | 5.7 | Intellectual property rights | 53 |
| | | 5.7.1 | TRIPS and the Convention on Biological Diversity | 55 |
| | | 5.7.2 | TRIPS and agriculture | 56 |
| | 5.8 | Investment | 57 |
| | 5.9 | Government procurement | 59 |
| | 5.10 | MEAs and the WTO | 60 |
| 6. | Institutional issues | 67 |
| | 6.1 | Openness in trade policy-making | 67 |
| | 6.2 | Environmental assessment of trade agreements | 69 |
| 7. | Environmental aspects of regional trade agreements | 73 |
| | 7.1 | The North American Free Trade Agreement | 73 |
| | | 7.1.1 | Investment: Chapter 11 | 73 |
| | | 7.1.2 | Standards: Chapters 7 and 9 | 74 |
| | | 7.1.3 | International environmental agreements: Chapter 104 | 75 |
| | 7.2 | The European Union | 75 |
| | 7.3 | Mercosur | 77 |
| 8. | Conclusion | 79 |
| | Index | 81 |
